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31/07/2023
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Bui, T. T. M., Tran, M. D., & Vu, T. A. (2023). Measurement of hard-life experiences through the psychological sense: the SEM approach. Journal of International Economics and Management, 23(2), 45-62. https://doi.org/10.38203/jiem.023.2.0069
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Measurement of hard-life experiences through the psychological sense: the SEM approach
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Abstract
This paper aims to develop a scale for hard-life experiences through a psychological sense. Past hardships can impact individuals' cognition, stress levels, and resilience. Learning about hard-life experiences is one aspect of longitudinal studies on the historical life of key leaders, focusing on the traumatic feelings from childhood to adulthood. The sample consists of answers from 149 key leaders who are business owners, managers, and entrepreneurs in Vietnam. The structural equation modeling was applied to investigate the validity and reliability of hard-life experience measurement scales with two coherent constructs. This study discovers two sub-scales chronic and acute hard-life experiences to measure key leaders’ hardship during their lifetime, equivalent for the period of childhood up to adolescence, and the adult period of individual key leaders essentially. This study makes a significant contribution by introducing a new benchmark to the existing literature on the experiences of business owners, crucial managers, and entrepreneurs. Scholars can use this scale to investigate relationships between hard-life experience factors and others by quantitative methods.
Article Details
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
Keywords
Hard-life experiences, Manager, Entrepreneur, Business owner, Measurement
References
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Anson, O., Carmel, S., Bonneh, D.Y., Levenson, A. and Maoz, B. (1990), “Recent life events, religiosity, and health: an individual or collective effect”, Human Relations, Vol. 43 No. 11, pp. 1051 - 1066.
Barrera, M., Caples, H. and Tein, J.Y. (2001), “The psychological sense of economic hardship: measurement models, validity, and cross‐ethnic equivalence for urban families”, American Journal of Community Psychology, Vol. 29 No. 3, pp. 493 - 517.
Bonanno, G.A. (2012), “Uses and abuses of the resilience construct: loss, trauma, and health-related adversities”, Social Science and Medicine, Vol. 74 No. 5, pp. 753 - 756.
Bonanno, G.A. (2004), “Loss, trauma, and human resilience: have we underestimated the human capacity to thrive after extremely aversive events?”, American Psychologist, Vol. 59 No. 1, pp. 20 - 28.
Brockhaus, Sr.R.H. (1988), “Entrepreneurial research: are we playing the correct game?”, American Journal of Small Business, Vol. 12 No. 3, pp. 55 - 61.
Caputo, F., Veltri, S. and Venturelli, A. (2017), “A conceptual model of forces driving the introduction of a sustainability report in SMEs: evidence from a case study”, International Business Research, Vol. 10 No. 5, pp. 39 - 50.
Carollo, L. and Guerci, M. (2017), “‘Activists in a suit’: paradoxes and metaphors in sustainability managers’ identity work”, Journal of Business Ethics, Vol. 148, pp. 249 - 268.
Corner, P.D., Singh, S. and Pavlovich, K. (2017), “Entrepreneurial resilience and venture failure”, International Small Business Journal, Vol. 35 No. 6, pp. 687 - 708.
Costanza, D.P., Badger, J.M., Fraser, R.L., Severt, J.B. and Gade, P.A. (2012), “Generational differences in work-related attitudes: a meta-analysis”, Journal of Business and Psychology, Vol. 27, pp. 375 - 394.
Cristobal, E., Flavian, C. and Guinaliu, M. (2007), “Perceived e‐service quality (PeSQ): measurement validation and effects on consumer satisfaction and web site loyalty”, Managing Service Quality: An International Journal, Vol. 17 No. 3, pp. 317 - 340.
Davis, C.G. and McKearney, J.M. (2003), “How do people grow from their experience with trauma or loss?”, Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, Vol. 22 No. 5, pp. 477 - 492.
Dekker, D.J. and Webb, J.T. (1974), “Relationships of the social readjustment rating scale to psychiatric patient status, anxiety and social desirability”, Journal of Psychosomatic Research, Vol. 18 No. 2, pp. 125 - 130.
Dimov, D. (2010), “Nascent entrepreneurs and venture emergence: opportunity confidence, human capital, and early planning”, Journal of Management Studies, Vol. 47 No. 6, pp. 1123 - 1153.
Dohrenwend, B.S. (1973), “Social status and stressful life events”, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol. 28 No. 2, pp. 225 - 235.
Dohrenwend, B.S. and Dohrenwend, B.P. (1974), Stressful life events: their nature and effects, John Wiley & Sons.
Elder, Jr.G.H. (1998), “The life course as developmental theory”, Child Development, Vol. 69 No. 1, pp. 1 - 12.
Floyd, F.J. and Widaman, K.F. (1995), “Factor analysis in the development and refinement of clinical assessment instruments”, Psychological Assessment, Vol. 7 No. 3, pp. 286 - 299.
Fornell, C. and Larcker, D.F. (1981), “Structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error: algebra and statistics”, Journal of Marketing Research, Vol. 18 No. 3, pp. 382 - 388.
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Hoch, S.J. and Deighton, J. (1989), “Managing what consumers learn from experience”, Journal of Marketing, Vol. 53 No. 2, pp. 1 - 20.
Holmes, T.H. and Rahe, R.H. (1967), “The social readjustment rating scale”, Journal of Psychosomatic Research, Vol. 11 No. 2, pp. 213 - 218.
Hosany, S. and Gilbert, D. (2010), “Measuring tourists’ emotional experiences toward hedonic holiday destinations”, Journal of Travel Research, Vol. 49 No. 4, pp. 513 - 526.
Hu, L.T. and Bentler, P.M. (1999), “Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: conventional criteria versus new alternatives”, Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, Vol. 6 No. 1, pp. 1 - 55.
Hung, K. and Petrick, J.F. (2010), “Developing a measurement scale for constraints to cruising”, Annals of Tourism Research, Vol. 37 No. 1, pp. 206 - 228.
Kaesehage, K., Leyshon, M. and Caseldine, C. (2014), “Communicating climate change–Learning from business: challenging values, changing economic thinking, innovating the low carbon economy”, Fennia-International Journal of Geography, Vol. 192 No. 2, pp. 81 - 99.
Kaiser, H.F. (1974), “An index of factorial simplicity”, Psychometrika, Vol. 39 No. 1, pp. 31 - 36.
Kim, J.H., Ritchie, J.B. and McCormick, B. (2012), “Development of a scale to measure memorable tourism experiences”, Journal of Travel Research, Vol. 51 No. 1, pp. 12 - 25.
Lankford, S.V. and Howard, D.R. (1994), “Developing a tourism impact attitude scale”, Annals of Tourism Research, Vol. 21 No. 1, pp. 121 - 139.
Lazarus, R.S. and Folkman, S. (1984), Stress, appraisal, and coping, Springer, New York.
Lilius, J.M., Worline, M.C., Maitlis, S., Kanov, J., Dutton, J.E. and Frost, P. (2008), “The contours and consequences of compassion at work”, Journal of Organizational Behavior: The International Journal of Industrial, Occupational and Organizational Psychology and Behavior, Vol. 29 No. 2, pp. 193 - 218.
Mueller, D.P., Edwards, D.W. and Yarvis, R.M. (1977), “Stressful life events and psychiatric symptomatology: change or undesirability?”, Journal of Health and Social Behavior, Vol. 18 No. 3, pp. 307 - 317.
Muñoz, P. (2017), “A cognitive map of sustainable decision-making in entrepreneurship: a configurational approach”, International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behavior & Research, Vol. 24 No. 3, pp. 787 - 813.
Nunnally, J.C. and Bernstein, I.H. (1994), Psychometric theory (3rd ed.), McGraw-Hill, New York.
Nyberg, D. and Sveningsson, S. (2014), “Paradoxes of authentic leadership: leader identity struggles”, Leadership, Vol. 10 No. 4, pp. 437 - 455.
Obschonka, M., Silbereisen, R.K. and Schmitt-Rodermund, E. (2010), “Entrepreneurial intention as developmental outcome”, Journal of Vocational Behavior, Vol. 77 No. 1, pp. 63 - 72.
Ortiz-Avram, D., Domnanovich, J., Kronenberg, C. and Scholz, M. (2018), “Exploring the integration of corporate social responsibility into the strategies of small-and medium-sized enterprises: a systematic literature review”, Journal of Cleaner Production, Vol. 201, pp. 254 - 271.
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Pugh, W.M., Erickson, J., Rubin, R.T., Gunderson, E.E. and Rahe, C.R.H. (1971), “Cluster analyses of life changes: II. Method and replication in Navy subpopulations”, Archives of General Psychiatry, Vol. 25 No. 4, pp. 333 - 339.
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Ruch, L.O. (1977), “A multidimensional analysis of the concept of life change”, Journal of Health and Social Behavior, Vol. 18 No. 1, pp. 71 - 83.
Ruch, L.O. and Holmes, T.H. (1971), “Scaling of life change: comparison of direct and indirect methods”, Journal of Psychosomatic Research, Vol. 15 No. 2, pp. 221 - 227.
Rutter, M., Maughan, B., Pickles, A. and Simonoff, E. (1998), “Retrospective recall recalled”, in Cairns, R.B., Bergman, L.R. and Kagan, J. (Eds.), Methods and Models for Studying the Individual, Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA, pp. 219 - 243.
Hajjar, S.T. (2018), “Statistical analysis: internal-consistency reliability and construct validity”, International Journal of Quantitative and Qualitative Research Methods, Vol. 6 No. 1, pp. 27 - 38.
Sarason, I.G., Johnson, J.H. and Siegel, J.M. (1978), “Assessing the impact of life changes: development of the life experiences survey”, Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, Vol. 46 No. 5, pp. 932 - 946.
Schmitt-Rodermund, E. (2004), “Pathways to successful entrepreneurship: parenting, personality, early entrepreneurial competence, and interests”, Journal of Vocational Behavior, Vol. 65 No. 3, pp. 498 - 518.
Schmitt-Rodermund, E. (2007), “The long way to entrepreneurship: Personality, parenting, early interests, and competencies as precursors for entrepreneurial activity among the ‘Termites’”, in Silbereisen, R.K. and Lerner, R.M. (Eds.), Approaches to Positive Youth Development, Sage, London, pp. 205 - 224.
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Sims, D. (2003), “Between the millstones: a narrative account of the vulnerability of middle managers’ storying”, Human Relations, Vol. 56 No. 10, pp. 1195 - 1211.
Skinner, H.A. and Lei, H. (1980), “The multi-dimensional assessment of stressful life events”, The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, Vol. 168 No. 9, pp. 535 - 541.
Stewart Jr, W.H., Watson, W.E., Carland, J.C. and Carland, J.W. (1999), “A proclivity for entrepreneurship: a comparison of entrepreneurs, small business owners, and corporate managers”, Journal of Business Venturing, Vol. 14 No. 2, pp. 189 - 214.
Thoits, P.A. (1981), “Undesirable life events and psychophysiological distress: a problem of operational confounding”, American Sociological Review, Vol. 46 No. 1, pp. 97 - 109.
Tausig, M. (1982), “Measuring life events”, Journal of Health and Social Behavior, Vol. 23 No. 1, pp. 52 - 64.
Ulvenblad, P., Berggren, E. and Winborg, J. (2013), “The role of entrepreneurship education and start‐ up experience for handling communication and liability of newness”, International Journal of
Entrepreneurial Behavior & Research, Vol. 19 No. 2, pp. 187 - 209.
Venugopal, S., Viswanathan, M. and Jung, K. (2015), “Consumption constraints and entrepreneurial intentions in subsistence marketplaces”, Journal of Public Policy and Marketing, Vol. 34 No. 2, pp. 235 - 251.
Vinokur, A. and Selzer, M.L. (1973), “Life events, stress and mental distress”, in Proceedings of the Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association, American Psychological Association, Washington D.C.
Vinokur, A. and Selzer, M.L. (1975), “Desirable versus undesirable life events: their relationship to stress and mental distress”, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol. 32 No. 2, pp. 329 - 337.
Wang, K.C., Hsieh, A.T., Chou, S.H. and Lin, Y.S. (2007), “GPTCCC: an instrument for measuring group package tour service”, Tourism Management, Vol. 28 No. 2, pp. 361 - 376.
Williams, S. and Schaefer, A. (2013), “Small and medium‐sized enterprises and sustainability: managers' values and engagement with environmental and climate change issues”, Business Strategy and the Environment, Vol. 22 No. 3, pp. 173 - 186.
Wim, J., Katrien, W., Patrick, D.P. and Patrick, V.K. (2008), Marketing research with SPSS, Pearson Education.
Wyler, A.R., Masuda, M. and Holmes, T.H. (1971), “Magnitude of life events and seriousness of illness”, Psychosomatic Medicine, Vol. 33 No. 2, pp. 115 - 122.
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Anderson, J.C. and Gerbing, D.W. (1988), “Structural equation modeling in practice: a review and recommended two-step approach”, Psychological Bulletin, Vol. 103 No. 3, pp. 411 - 423.
Anson, O., Carmel, S., Bonneh, D.Y., Levenson, A. and Maoz, B. (1990), “Recent life events, religiosity, and health: an individual or collective effect”, Human Relations, Vol. 43 No. 11, pp. 1051 - 1066.
Barrera, M., Caples, H. and Tein, J.Y. (2001), “The psychological sense of economic hardship: measurement models, validity, and cross‐ethnic equivalence for urban families”, American Journal of Community Psychology, Vol. 29 No. 3, pp. 493 - 517.
Bonanno, G.A. (2012), “Uses and abuses of the resilience construct: loss, trauma, and health-related adversities”, Social Science and Medicine, Vol. 74 No. 5, pp. 753 - 756.
Bonanno, G.A. (2004), “Loss, trauma, and human resilience: have we underestimated the human capacity to thrive after extremely aversive events?”, American Psychologist, Vol. 59 No. 1, pp. 20 - 28.
Brockhaus, Sr.R.H. (1988), “Entrepreneurial research: are we playing the correct game?”, American Journal of Small Business, Vol. 12 No. 3, pp. 55 - 61.
Caputo, F., Veltri, S. and Venturelli, A. (2017), “A conceptual model of forces driving the introduction of a sustainability report in SMEs: evidence from a case study”, International Business Research, Vol. 10 No. 5, pp. 39 - 50.
Carollo, L. and Guerci, M. (2017), “‘Activists in a suit’: paradoxes and metaphors in sustainability managers’ identity work”, Journal of Business Ethics, Vol. 148, pp. 249 - 268.
Corner, P.D., Singh, S. and Pavlovich, K. (2017), “Entrepreneurial resilience and venture failure”, International Small Business Journal, Vol. 35 No. 6, pp. 687 - 708.
Costanza, D.P., Badger, J.M., Fraser, R.L., Severt, J.B. and Gade, P.A. (2012), “Generational differences in work-related attitudes: a meta-analysis”, Journal of Business and Psychology, Vol. 27, pp. 375 - 394.
Cristobal, E., Flavian, C. and Guinaliu, M. (2007), “Perceived e‐service quality (PeSQ): measurement validation and effects on consumer satisfaction and web site loyalty”, Managing Service Quality: An International Journal, Vol. 17 No. 3, pp. 317 - 340.
Davis, C.G. and McKearney, J.M. (2003), “How do people grow from their experience with trauma or loss?”, Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, Vol. 22 No. 5, pp. 477 - 492.
Dekker, D.J. and Webb, J.T. (1974), “Relationships of the social readjustment rating scale to psychiatric patient status, anxiety and social desirability”, Journal of Psychosomatic Research, Vol. 18 No. 2, pp. 125 - 130.
Dimov, D. (2010), “Nascent entrepreneurs and venture emergence: opportunity confidence, human capital, and early planning”, Journal of Management Studies, Vol. 47 No. 6, pp. 1123 - 1153.
Dohrenwend, B.S. (1973), “Social status and stressful life events”, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol. 28 No. 2, pp. 225 - 235.
Dohrenwend, B.S. and Dohrenwend, B.P. (1974), Stressful life events: their nature and effects, John Wiley & Sons.
Elder, Jr.G.H. (1998), “The life course as developmental theory”, Child Development, Vol. 69 No. 1, pp. 1 - 12.
Floyd, F.J. and Widaman, K.F. (1995), “Factor analysis in the development and refinement of clinical assessment instruments”, Psychological Assessment, Vol. 7 No. 3, pp. 286 - 299.
Fornell, C. and Larcker, D.F. (1981), “Structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error: algebra and statistics”, Journal of Marketing Research, Vol. 18 No. 3, pp. 382 - 388.
Hair, J.F.Jr., Anderson, R.E., Tatham, R.L. and Black, W.C. (1998), Multivariate data analysis, Prentice Hall, New York.
Hair, J.F., Black, W.C., Babin, B.J. and Anderson, R.E. (2010), Multivariate data analysis, Prentice Hall, New Jersey.
Hair, J.F., Hult, G.T.M., Ringle, C.M. and Sarstedt, M. (2014), A primer on partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM), Sage, Thousand Oaks.
Hair, J.F, Black, W.C., Babin, B.J., Anderson, R.E. and Tatham, R.L. (2006), Multivariate data analysis, Prentice Hall, New Jersey.
Hair, Jr.J.F., Sarstedt, M., Matthews, L.M. and Ringle, C.M. (2016), “Identifying and treating unobserved heterogeneity with FIMIX-PLS: part I–method”, European Business Review, Vol. 28 No. 1, pp. 63 - 76.
Hair, J.F, Harrison, D. and Risher, J.J. (2018), “Marketing research in the 21st century: opportunities and challenges”, Brazilian Journal of Marketing-BJMkt, Revista Brasileira de Marketing–ReMark, Vol. 17 No. 5, 666699.
Hoch, S.J. and Deighton, J. (1989), “Managing what consumers learn from experience”, Journal of Marketing, Vol. 53 No. 2, pp. 1 - 20.
Holmes, T.H. and Rahe, R.H. (1967), “The social readjustment rating scale”, Journal of Psychosomatic Research, Vol. 11 No. 2, pp. 213 - 218.
Hosany, S. and Gilbert, D. (2010), “Measuring tourists’ emotional experiences toward hedonic holiday destinations”, Journal of Travel Research, Vol. 49 No. 4, pp. 513 - 526.
Hu, L.T. and Bentler, P.M. (1999), “Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: conventional criteria versus new alternatives”, Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, Vol. 6 No. 1, pp. 1 - 55.
Hung, K. and Petrick, J.F. (2010), “Developing a measurement scale for constraints to cruising”, Annals of Tourism Research, Vol. 37 No. 1, pp. 206 - 228.
Kaesehage, K., Leyshon, M. and Caseldine, C. (2014), “Communicating climate change–Learning from business: challenging values, changing economic thinking, innovating the low carbon economy”, Fennia-International Journal of Geography, Vol. 192 No. 2, pp. 81 - 99.
Kaiser, H.F. (1974), “An index of factorial simplicity”, Psychometrika, Vol. 39 No. 1, pp. 31 - 36.
Kim, J.H., Ritchie, J.B. and McCormick, B. (2012), “Development of a scale to measure memorable tourism experiences”, Journal of Travel Research, Vol. 51 No. 1, pp. 12 - 25.
Lankford, S.V. and Howard, D.R. (1994), “Developing a tourism impact attitude scale”, Annals of Tourism Research, Vol. 21 No. 1, pp. 121 - 139.
Lazarus, R.S. and Folkman, S. (1984), Stress, appraisal, and coping, Springer, New York.
Lilius, J.M., Worline, M.C., Maitlis, S., Kanov, J., Dutton, J.E. and Frost, P. (2008), “The contours and consequences of compassion at work”, Journal of Organizational Behavior: The International Journal of Industrial, Occupational and Organizational Psychology and Behavior, Vol. 29 No. 2, pp. 193 - 218.
Mueller, D.P., Edwards, D.W. and Yarvis, R.M. (1977), “Stressful life events and psychiatric symptomatology: change or undesirability?”, Journal of Health and Social Behavior, Vol. 18 No. 3, pp. 307 - 317.
Muñoz, P. (2017), “A cognitive map of sustainable decision-making in entrepreneurship: a configurational approach”, International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behavior & Research, Vol. 24 No. 3, pp. 787 - 813.
Nunnally, J.C. and Bernstein, I.H. (1994), Psychometric theory (3rd ed.), McGraw-Hill, New York.
Nyberg, D. and Sveningsson, S. (2014), “Paradoxes of authentic leadership: leader identity struggles”, Leadership, Vol. 10 No. 4, pp. 437 - 455.
Obschonka, M., Silbereisen, R.K. and Schmitt-Rodermund, E. (2010), “Entrepreneurial intention as developmental outcome”, Journal of Vocational Behavior, Vol. 77 No. 1, pp. 63 - 72.
Ortiz-Avram, D., Domnanovich, J., Kronenberg, C. and Scholz, M. (2018), “Exploring the integration of corporate social responsibility into the strategies of small-and medium-sized enterprises: a systematic literature review”, Journal of Cleaner Production, Vol. 201, pp. 254 - 271.
Paykel, E.S., Myers, J.K., Dienelt, M.N., Klerman, G.L., Lindenthal, J.J., and Pepper, M.P. (1969), “Life events and depression: a controlled study”, Archives of General Psychiatry, Vol. 21 No. 6, pp. 753 - 760.
Phillips, M. (2013), “On being green and being enterprising: narrative and the ecopreneurial self”, Organization, Vol. 20 No. 6, pp. 794 - 817.
Pugh, W.M., Erickson, J., Rubin, R.T., Gunderson, E.E. and Rahe, C.R.H. (1971), “Cluster analyses of life changes: II. Method and replication in Navy subpopulations”, Archives of General Psychiatry, Vol. 25 No. 4, pp. 333 - 339.
Rahe, C.R.H., Pugh, W.M., Gunderson, E.E. and Rubin, R.T. (1971), “Cluster analyses of life changes: I. Consistency of clusters across large Navy samples”, Archives of General Psychiatry, Vol. 25 No. 4, pp. 330 - 332.
Ruch, L.O. (1977), “A multidimensional analysis of the concept of life change”, Journal of Health and Social Behavior, Vol. 18 No. 1, pp. 71 - 83.
Ruch, L.O. and Holmes, T.H. (1971), “Scaling of life change: comparison of direct and indirect methods”, Journal of Psychosomatic Research, Vol. 15 No. 2, pp. 221 - 227.
Rutter, M., Maughan, B., Pickles, A. and Simonoff, E. (1998), “Retrospective recall recalled”, in Cairns, R.B., Bergman, L.R. and Kagan, J. (Eds.), Methods and Models for Studying the Individual, Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA, pp. 219 - 243.
Hajjar, S.T. (2018), “Statistical analysis: internal-consistency reliability and construct validity”, International Journal of Quantitative and Qualitative Research Methods, Vol. 6 No. 1, pp. 27 - 38.
Sarason, I.G., Johnson, J.H. and Siegel, J.M. (1978), “Assessing the impact of life changes: development of the life experiences survey”, Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, Vol. 46 No. 5, pp. 932 - 946.
Schmitt-Rodermund, E. (2004), “Pathways to successful entrepreneurship: parenting, personality, early entrepreneurial competence, and interests”, Journal of Vocational Behavior, Vol. 65 No. 3, pp. 498 - 518.
Schmitt-Rodermund, E. (2007), “The long way to entrepreneurship: Personality, parenting, early interests, and competencies as precursors for entrepreneurial activity among the ‘Termites’”, in Silbereisen, R.K. and Lerner, R.M. (Eds.), Approaches to Positive Youth Development, Sage, London, pp. 205 - 224.
Seery, M.D., Holman, E.A. and Silver, R.C. (2010), “Whatever does not kill us: cumulative lifetime adversity, vulnerability, and resilience”, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol. 99 No. 6, pp. 1025 - 1041.
Sims, D. (2003), “Between the millstones: a narrative account of the vulnerability of middle managers’ storying”, Human Relations, Vol. 56 No. 10, pp. 1195 - 1211.
Skinner, H.A. and Lei, H. (1980), “The multi-dimensional assessment of stressful life events”, The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, Vol. 168 No. 9, pp. 535 - 541.
Stewart Jr, W.H., Watson, W.E., Carland, J.C. and Carland, J.W. (1999), “A proclivity for entrepreneurship: a comparison of entrepreneurs, small business owners, and corporate managers”, Journal of Business Venturing, Vol. 14 No. 2, pp. 189 - 214.
Thoits, P.A. (1981), “Undesirable life events and psychophysiological distress: a problem of operational confounding”, American Sociological Review, Vol. 46 No. 1, pp. 97 - 109.
Tausig, M. (1982), “Measuring life events”, Journal of Health and Social Behavior, Vol. 23 No. 1, pp. 52 - 64.
Ulvenblad, P., Berggren, E. and Winborg, J. (2013), “The role of entrepreneurship education and start‐ up experience for handling communication and liability of newness”, International Journal of
Entrepreneurial Behavior & Research, Vol. 19 No. 2, pp. 187 - 209.
Venugopal, S., Viswanathan, M. and Jung, K. (2015), “Consumption constraints and entrepreneurial intentions in subsistence marketplaces”, Journal of Public Policy and Marketing, Vol. 34 No. 2, pp. 235 - 251.
Vinokur, A. and Selzer, M.L. (1973), “Life events, stress and mental distress”, in Proceedings of the Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association, American Psychological Association, Washington D.C.
Vinokur, A. and Selzer, M.L. (1975), “Desirable versus undesirable life events: their relationship to stress and mental distress”, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol. 32 No. 2, pp. 329 - 337.
Wang, K.C., Hsieh, A.T., Chou, S.H. and Lin, Y.S. (2007), “GPTCCC: an instrument for measuring group package tour service”, Tourism Management, Vol. 28 No. 2, pp. 361 - 376.
Williams, S. and Schaefer, A. (2013), “Small and medium‐sized enterprises and sustainability: managers' values and engagement with environmental and climate change issues”, Business Strategy and the Environment, Vol. 22 No. 3, pp. 173 - 186.
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